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Copper 3D Printing

Why is it so difficult to 3D print copper?

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Copper is a highly desirable material in manufacturing, prized for its exceptional thermal and electrical conductivity as well as its corrosion resistance. With applications ranging from heat exchangers and induction coils to combustion chambers for space exploration, the demand for copper 3D printing has surged. However, producing complex copper components using 3D printing is no easy feat.

This article delves into the challenges and showcases how advanced technologies like Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF), Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (E-PBF), Material Extrusion (ME), and Binder Jetting (BJT) are overcoming these hurdles.

Why is Copper So Hard to 3D Print?

Copper’s unique properties present significant challenges for most 3D printing technologies:

  • High Reflectivity: Copper reflects a large portion of laser energy, especially at the wavelengths used in Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) systems, making it difficult to achieve efficient melting.
  • Thermal Conductivity: Its ability to quickly disperse heat creates issues in retaining the localized energy needed to form solid, cohesive layers.
  • Material Oxidation: The rapid oxidation of copper can affect print quality, particularly in open systems.
Selected applications for copper 3D Printing. Image Source: all3dp.com

Overcoming Copper’s Challenges in 3D Printing

Innovative advancements have enabled manufacturers to address these challenges. Here’s how leading technologies are making copper 3D printing possible:

Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF)

Functional Principle Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF)

L-PBF relies on lasers to selectively melt powder. However, its reliance on standard fiber lasers, which operate at wavelengths copper reflects heavily, initially limited its effectiveness. Manufacturers now use:

  • Green Lasers: Companies like Trumpf have integrated green lasers, which copper absorbs more efficiently, to minimize energy loss and improve print quality.
  • High-Power Lasers: EOS utilizes 1 kW lasers to achieve the necessary energy density for successful copper printing.

Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (E-PBF)

Functional Principle Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (E-PBF)

E-PBF, which uses an electron gun instead of a laser, is particularly effective for copper 3D printing. Copper readily absorbs the energy from the electron beam, making it an ideal method for high-quality prints. This technology is commonly used for aerospace applications, where precision and material properties are critical.

Binder Jetting (BJT)

Funtional Principle Metal Binder Jetting

BJT is another promising technology for copper printing. It eliminates the reliance on lasers or electron beams, sidestepping challenges related to reflectivity and thermal conductivity. Instead, a binder is selectively deposited to form parts, which are later sintered to achieve the desired density.

Material Extrusion (ME)

Functional principle of filament material extrusion

ME, often referred to as FDM or FFF, has been adapted for metal printing. Companies like Markforged have successfully incorporated pure copper into their systems, offering a cost-effective and accessible solution for producing functional copper components.

Key Applications of Copper 3D Printing

The ability to create complex geometries makes 3D printing an ideal manufacturing process for copper. Common applications include:

  • Heat Exchangers: Efficiently dissipating heat in high-performance systems.
  • Induction Coils: Used in industrial heating and energy transfer.
  • Combustion Chambers: Essential for space exploration and aerospace industries.
  • Wave Guides: Critical for telecommunications and microwave systems.
Copper Heatexchanger Demopart. Image source: EOS

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Sinter-based AM technologies and process chain

Sinter-based AM - a technology overview

Many different printing technologies - one sintering process

The sinter-based AM (SBAM) technologies have, as the name suggests, the sintering process in common. In this process, the printed green part is consolidated into a dense part and receives its final properties. The green part can be printed in advance using different technologies.They all have in common that metal powder is bound to the desired shape by a binder. The best-known printing technologies include Binder Jetting and Filament Material Extrusion.

In this section, you learn everything about the sinter-based AM  process chain and get an overview of the different printing technologies.

Goal and structure of this course

This course is aimed at engineers, designers and other professionals that are working closely with sinter-based AM technologies. The goal is to cover the most important aspects that will enable engineers and designers to fully grasp the capabilities and technical limitations of the printing technologies and the sintering process to succeed in technology selection and part design. Besides going through the course from the beginning until the end, this course can also act as a constant source of knowledge while working on AM projects. 

The course is structured into the following sections.

This section will start with an overview of the sinter-based AM process chain and its printing technologies, followed by a technology deep dive into the most important aspects of the BJT technology, followed by a closer look at the debinding and sintering step also including sintering simulation .

The second section will provide an overview of the different materials that are available as well as part characteristics that can be achieved with the BJT process and typical methods for quality assurance. Finally, several common defects in the BJT process are presented. 

The last section will act as a guideline for designers. Besides generally describing the process when designing for Additive Manufacturing, actionable restrictions and guidelines for the BJT process are provided. The final section will present several design examples from different industries. 

What you will find in this section

Sinter-based AM process chain

From digital model to finished part

Data preparation

Simulation to compensate the deformation during the sintering step, nesting of parts and definition of printing parameters

Printing

Through various printing processes, different feedstocks such as metal powders, filaments, pellets or dispersions are processed into green parts

Unpacking

Unpacking of fragile green parts needs to be done carefully and is typically a manual process.

Debinding

Debinding describes the process of removing the binder which results in a brown part

Sintering

To reach the structural integrity of a metal part, a sinter process is required. The powder particles fuse together to a coherent, solid structure via a mass transport that occurs at the atomic scale driven via diffusional forces.

The brown part shrinks ~13-21 % in each direction.

The process chain of sinter-based technologies differs from other AM Technologies. Especially the post-printing processes (debinding and sintering) are crucial to achieve the intended mechanical properties.

Technology principle

How does Binder Jetting work?

Binder Jetting is a powder based Additive Manufacturing technology in which a liquid polymer binder is selectively deposited onto the powder bed binding the metal particles and forming a green body.

The metal powder is applied to a build platform in a typical layer thickness of 40 µm to 100 µm. Subsequently a modified 2D print head apply a binder selectively onto the powder bed. Depending on machine technology a hardening or curing process of the binder is performed in parallel for each layer and/or at the end of the whole build. During the in-situ curing process a heat source is used to solidify the binder and form a solid polymer – metal powder composite.

Working Principle of Binder Jetting

Afterwards the build platform moves downward by the amount of one layer thickness and a new layer of powder is applied. Again, the liquid binder is deposited and hardened in the required regions of the next layer to form the green body. This process is repeated until the complete part is printed. After the complete printing process is finished the parts have to be removed from the “powder cake” meaning the surrounding loose but densified powder. To improve the removal of the excess powder from the green body often brushes or a blasting gun with air pressure are used.

To create a dense metal part the 3D printed green body has to be post-processed in a debinding and sintering process. Similar to the metal injection molding process BJT parts are placed in a high temperature furnace, where the binder is burnt out and the remaining metal particles are sintered together. The sintering results in densification of the 3D printed green body to a metal part with high densities of 97 % to 99,5%, dependent of the material.

Printing Technologies

Metal Binder Jetting

Binder Jetting is a powder based Additive Manufacturing technology in which a liquid polymer binder is selectively deposited onto the powder bed binding the metal particles and forming a green body.

The metal powder is applied to a build platform in a typical layer thickness of 40 µm to 100 µm. Subsequently a modified 2D print head apply a binder selectively onto the powder bed. Depending on machine technology a hardening or curing process of the binder is performed in parallel for each layer and/or at the end of the whole build. During the in-situ curing process a heat source is used to solidify the binder and form a solid polymer – metal powder composite.

Working Principle of Binder Jetting

Material Extrusion

Binder Jetting is a powder based Additive Manufacturing technology in which a liquid polymer binder is selectively deposited onto the powder bed binding the metal particles and forming a green body.

The metal powder is applied to a build platform in a typical layer thickness of 40 µm to 100 µm. Subsequently a modified 2D print head apply a binder selectively onto the powder bed. Depending on machine technology a hardening or curing process of the binder is performed in parallel for each layer and/or at the end of the whole build. During the in-situ curing process a heat source is used to solidify the binder and form a solid polymer – metal powder composite.

Working Principle of Binder Jetting

Mold Slurry Deposition

Binder Jetting is a powder based Additive Manufacturing technology in which a liquid polymer binder is selectively deposited onto the powder bed binding the metal particles and forming a green body.

The metal powder is applied to a build platform in a typical layer thickness of 40 µm to 100 µm. Subsequently a modified 2D print head apply a binder selectively onto the powder bed. Depending on machine technology a hardening or curing process of the binder is performed in parallel for each layer and/or at the end of the whole build. During the in-situ curing process a heat source is used to solidify the binder and form a solid polymer – metal powder composite.

Working Principle of Binder Jetting

Metal Selective Laser Sintering

Binder Jetting is a powder based Additive Manufacturing technology in which a liquid polymer binder is selectively deposited onto the powder bed binding the metal particles and forming a green body.

The metal powder is applied to a build platform in a typical layer thickness of 40 µm to 100 µm. Subsequently a modified 2D print head apply a binder selectively onto the powder bed. Depending on machine technology a hardening or curing process of the binder is performed in parallel for each layer and/or at the end of the whole build. During the in-situ curing process a heat source is used to solidify the binder and form a solid polymer – metal powder composite.

Working Principle of Binder Jetting